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equation solving - Apart for complex roots?


Let p[x] be a polynomial in x and consider the partial fraction decomposition of 1/p[x].


The function Apart[] fails in simple cases like this



Apart[1/(1 + x^2)]

(* Out[37]= 1/(1 + x^2) *)

We could define a function


cApart[invp_] := Module[{z, c},
   z = x /. Solve[0 == 1/invp, x];
   c[k_] := 
    Product[If[i != k, 1/(z[[k]] - z[[i]]), 1], {i, 1, Length[z]}];
   Sum[c[i]/(x - z[[i]]), {i, 1, Length[z]}]];


which does the job


cApart[1/(1 + x^2)]

(* Out[36] = -(I/(2 (-I + x))) + I/(2 (I + x)) *)

But my question: is there an option for Apart[] or another standard facility in Mathematica which gives the decomposition in general, i.e. in the complex domain?


EDIT #1.1 Standard solution using Extension


The hints given so far can be codensed in this example


With[{d = 1 + x + x^2}, 

 Apart[1/Factor[d, Extension -> (x /. Solve[d == 0, x])]]]

(* -(1/((-1 + 2 (-1)^(1/3)) (-1 + (-1)^(1/3) - x))) - 1/((-1 + 
    2 (-1)^(1/3)) ((-1)^(1/3) + x)) *)

But it turns out that this procedure is not useful in practical applications as it takes extremely long calculation times (e.g. 1+x+x^4 took to Long to wait for it).


The following form (or something similar) would be nice to have


Apart[1/p[x], Extension -> Complexes] (* proposal, not available *)

EDIT #1.2 Other applications of cApart



It is interesting to apply cApart to a polynomial of higher degree


cApart[1/(1 + x + x^6)]

(* 
Out[64]= 
 1/((x - Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1] -
       Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 2]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1] - 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 3]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1] - 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 4]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1] - 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 5]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1] - 

      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 6])) + 
 1/((x - Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 2]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1] + 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 2]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 2] - 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 3]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 2] - 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 4]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 2] - 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 5]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 2] - 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 6])) + 
 1/((x - Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 3]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1] + 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 3]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 2] + 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 3]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 3] - 

      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 4]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 3] - 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 5]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 3] - 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 6])) + 
 1/((x - Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 4]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1] + 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 4]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 2] + 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 4]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 3] + 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 4]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 4] - 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 5]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 4] - 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 6])) + 
 1/((x - Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 5]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1] + 

      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 5]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 2] + 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 5]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 3] + 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 5]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 4] + 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 5]) (Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 5] - 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 6])) + 
 1/((x - Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 6]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1] + 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 6]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 2] + 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 6]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 3] + 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 6]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 4] + 
      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 6]) (-Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 5] + 

      Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 6]))
*)

Which gives the solution in a very regular pattern involving the function Root[]. The numeric evaluation gives


% // N

(*
Out[65]= -((
  0.0965468 + 0.0295033 I)/((-0.945402 - 0.611837 I) + x)) - (
 0.0965468 - 0.0295033 I)/((-0.945402 + 0.611837 I) + x) - (

 0.084438 + 0.114801 I)/((0.154735 - 1.03838 I) + x) - (
 0.084438 - 0.114801 I)/((0.154735 + 1.03838 I) + x) + (
 0.180985 - 0.279696 I)/((0.790667 - 0.300507 I) + x) + (
 0.180985 + 0.279696 I)/((0.790667 + 0.300507 I) + x)
*)

We can even continue to use these symbolic Root[] expressions in more complicated environments such as


g[a_] = Integrate[
  Exp[-a x]/(x - Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1]), {x, 0, \[Infinity]}, 
  Assumptions -> a > 0]


(* Out[69]= E^(-a Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1]) (-I \[Pi] - 
   CoshIntegral[a Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1]] - 
   SinhIntegral[a Root[1 + #1 + #1^6 &, 1]]) *)

It is gratifying that the integral is evaluated symbolically. We can now easily calculate numerical values, e.g.


g[1.]


(* Out[70]= 0.653737 - 0.158332 I *)


Regards,
Wolfgang





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